4 markers

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1. Outline what is meant by introspection. (4 marks)

• Systematic analysis of one’s own conscious inner experiences

• Including thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions etc

• Developed by Wundt as an early scientific method

• Involved trained participants reporting their mental processes

• Presented everyday objects e.g. ticking metronome to ppts and asked them to report on their experiences

 

2. Outline how Pavlov studied classical conditioning. (4 marks)

• He investigated learning through associations

• Discovered CC accidentally when investigating salivation responses in dogs

• He paired a neutral stimulus (bell) with food (UCS)

• The bell became a conditioned stimulus producing salivation (CR)

 

3. Outline how Skinner studied operant conditioning. (4 marks)

• Skinner used rats/pigeons in the Skinner Box

• Controlled observations using standardised procedures

• Animals pressed a lever or pecked a key to receive food

• He manipulated rewards and punishments to measure the consequences

• Measured response rates to demonstrate consequences shape behaviour

 

4. Outline how behaviour is learnt through classical conditioning. (4 marks)

• Behaviour is learned when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus

• The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus

• This produces a conditioned response

• A link between stimulus and response is formed through repeated pairings

 

5. Outline how behaviour is learnt through operant conditioning. (4 marks)

• Behaviour is shaped by consequences

• Behaviours followed by rewards are repeated

• Behaviours followed by punishments are reduced

• Learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment

 

6. Outline how behaviour is learnt through reinforcement. (4 marks)

• Reinforcement increases the likelihood of behaviour

• Positive reinforcement gives a pleasant reward

• Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant

• Both lead to behaviour being repeated

 

7. Outline the role of identification in social learning theory. (4 marks)

• Individuals are more likely to imitate role models they identify with

• Identification is based on similarity (e.g. age, gender, status)

• The observer sees the model as someone they want to be like

• This increases the likelihood of imitating their behaviour

 

8. Outline the role of vicarious reinforcement in social learning theory. (4 marks)

• Individuals observe others being rewarded or punished

• Behaviour is more likely to be imitated if the model is rewarded

• This is indirect reinforcement rather than direct experience

• Affects likelihood that behaviour will be reproduced

 

9. Outline the role of mediational processes in social learning theory. (4 marks)

• Cognitive processes occur between observing and imitating behaviour

• These include attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

• They mediate whether the behaviour is reproduced

• They make behaviour deterministic than behaviourism as they allow for some free will

 

10. Outline how Bandura researched social learning theory. (4 marks)

• Bandura conducted controlled lab studies with children and an adult model

• Children watched adult behaving aggressively or non-aggressively with a Bobo doll (and other toys) for 10 minutes

• Behaviour of children was then observed in a separate room with toys for 20 minutes

• Compared behaviour of children exposed to different model conditions

 

11. Outline what Bandura found in his research into social learning theory. (4 marks)

• Children who saw aggressive model behaved more aggressively

• Children were more aggressive if model was same gender (especially boys)

• Non-aggressive model reduced aggressive responses

• Females were more verbally aggressive when watching a female role model and more physically aggressive when watching a male role model

• Supports role of observation and imitation in learning aggression

 

12. Compare two differences between behaviourism and social learning theory. (4 marks)

• Behaviourism emphasises learning through direct reinforcement; SLT adds indirect reinforcement

• Behaviourism ignores mental processes; SLT includes cognitive mediational processes

• Behaviourism mainly uses animals; SLT focuses more on human social context

• SLT acknowledges role of identification with models; behaviourism does not

 

13. Outline what is meant by internal mental processes. (4 marks)

• These are private cognitive operations inside the mind

• Includes thinking, memory, perception, attention and reasoning

• They cannot be directly observed

• Studied indirectly through scientific inferences from behaviour mostly in lab experiments

 

14. Outline the role of schema in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

• Schemas are mental frameworks of knowledge

• They help us organise information and guide expectations

• They develop through new experiences

• Allow quick processing of large amounts of information

• They can change through assimilation and accommodation

 

15. Outline the use of computer models in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

• Cognitive psychologists compare the mind to a computer

• Information processing model (input, processing and output stages) used to explain behaviour

• Suggest humans think rationally and process information logically

• Models help break complex processes into steps

• Useful for simulating mental processes scientifically

 

16. Outline the use of theoretical models in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

• Theoretical models represent mental processes visually

• Example of MSM and WMM • Models show information flow between components

• Help to explain complex ideas in simplistic ways

• Help psychologists test and refine theories (or parts of theories) scientifically

 

17. Outline the role of inferences in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

• Mental processes cannot be directly observed

• Researchers draw conclusions based on measurable behaviour

• Behaviour from lab experiments provides clues about internal processes

• Inferences are assumptions about what is happening inside the mind

 

18. Outline one strength and one limitation of the role of schema in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

Strengths

• Schemas help process information efficiently

• Allow quick interpretation of situations

Limitations

• Can lead to distortions in memory and perception

• May reinforce stereotypes or biased thinking

 

19. Outline one strength and one limitation of the use of theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

Strengths 

• Models allow complex mental processes to be simplified

• They can be tested scientifically and refined Limitations

• May oversimplify real mental processes i.e. machine reductionist 

• They ignore emotional and social influences on behaviour

 

20. Outline one strength and one limitation of making inferences about mental processes in the cognitive approach. (4 marks)

Strengths

• Allows psychologists to study internal processes scientifically

• Uses objective measurements to draw conclusions

Limitations 

• Inferences may be incorrect

• Internal mental processes cannot be directly verified (evidence may lack validity)

 

21. Outline the emergence of the cognitive approach in psychology. (4 marks)

• Wundt (1879) – father of Psychology: Leipzig, Germany

• Behaviourism dominated mid-20th century

• Developments in computers inspired new thinking about the mind - cognitive approach emerged to study internal processes scientifically

• Biological developments due to brain scanning technologies

• Cognitive neuroscience later linked brain structures to cognition

 

22. Using an example, outline the influence of genes in human behaviour. (4 marks)

• Genes are inherited through DNA and influence biological development and behaviour

• A pre-disposition to behaviours can be inherited

• e.g. genetic predisposition to OCD

• Genes interact with environment to shape behaviour – interactionism

 

23. Using an example, outline the role of neurochemistry in human behaviour. (4 marks)

• Behaviour can be affected by neurotransmitter activity in the brain

• Imbalances (too high or low) can cause behavioural and emotional disorders

• e.g. low serotonin linked to depression

• Hyperdopaminergia and hypodominergia is associated with schizophrenia symptoms

 

24. Using an example, outline the role of hormones in human behaviour. (4 marks)

• Hormones are released by glands into the bloodstream

• Can affect a wide range of behaviours as they can attach to any target organ

• Slow acting than the nervous system but affects are longer lasting

• Adrenaline linked to fight or flight response

• Testosterone linked to aggression

 

25. Using an example, outline how biological structures of the brain can affect human behaviour. (4 marks)

• Different brain areas thought to have specialised functions

• Damage or abnormalities can change behaviour

• e.g. the removal of the hippocampus in HM led to long term memory problems

• Frontal lobe damage can lead to impulsivity or poor decision making

 

26. Outline what is meant by genotype and phenotype. (4 marks)

• Genotype is an individual’s genetic makeup

• Phenotype is how the genotype is expressed in the environment

• Phenotype can change due to environmental influences

• Genotype is fixed but phenotype is variable

• Identical twins have the same genotype but can have different phenotypes

 

27. Outline how evolution has affected human behaviour. (4 marks) 

• Behaviours that increase survival are naturally selected

• Adaptive behaviours are passed to future generations

• e.g. Bowlby argued that attachment and caregiving behaviours aid survival of offspring

• Evolution explanations to phobias

 

28. Outline the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach. (4 marks)

• Unconscious mind contains desires and memories outside awareness

• Influences thoughts and behaviour indirectly

• Includes unacceptable impulses repressed from consciousness

• Expressed through dreams and slips of the tongue

• Freud’s analogy of the iceberg

 

29. Outline the structure of personality in the psychodynamic approach. (4 marks)

• Personality has three parts: id, ego and superego

• Id seeks pleasure immediately – pleasure principle

• Ego mediates between id and reality – reality principle

• Superego represents moral standards – morality principle

 

30. Outline the role of defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach. (4 marks)

• Defence mechanisms reduce anxiety

• Used by ego to cope with conflict between id and superego

• Include repression, denial and displacement

• Operate unconsciously to protect the mind

 

31. Outline what is meant by free will in the humanistic approach. (4 marks)

• Humans are active agents who can make their own choices

• Behaviour is not determined by forces outside a persons control

• Is it the opposite of determinism

• Individuals have control over their actions

• Emphasises personal responsibility

• Free will can lead to self-actualisation

• Humanists are the only psychologist to completely believe in free will

 

32. Outline the role of self-actualisation in the humanistic approach. (4 marks)

• Self-actualisation is achieving one’s full potential

• Highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy

• Growth and fulfilment are key human motivators

• Achieved when basic and psychological needs are met

• Not many people achieve this highest level. Maslow cited Einstein as an example.

 

33. Outline the role of congruence in the humanistic approach. (4 marks)

• Congruence is when ideal self matches self-concept

• Leads to positive functioning and psychological health

• Greater mismatch leads to incongruence

• Therapy aims to increase congruence

 

34. Outline the role of conditions of worth in the humanistic approach. (4 marks)

• Conditions of worth are requirements others place on us to gain approval

• Can lead to conditional positive regard

• Conditions of worth will lower a person’s self esteem

• May force person to deny their true self

• Limits self-actualisation

 

35. Outline how the humanistic approach has influenced counselling psychology. (4 marks)

• Rogers introduced client-centred therapy

• Focus on empathy and unconditional positive regard

• Therapist provides supportive environment for growth

• Aim is to increase self-esteem and congruence

• Therapist can also help create a more realistic ideal self

 

36. Outline two ways in which the humanistic approach rejects the scientific method. (4 marks) 

• Rejects objective measurement and experiments as it dehumanises the human experience

• Focuses on subjective experience and free will – therefore cannot test scientifically

• Sees humans as unique individuals no attempt to make generalisable laws

• Values qualitative over quantitative data

 

6 markers

 

1. Outline the emergence of psychology as a science. (6 marks)

• Wundt opened the first psychology lab and used introspection to study the mind systematically

• This marked the move from philosophy to a more scientific study of behaviour

• Behaviourists introduced objective measurement and controlled lab experiments

• The cognitive approach adopted scientific methods but focused on internal mental processes

• The biological approach used brain scanning and neuroimaging to study brain activity directly

• Modern psychology combines empirical scientific methods with theoretical explanations

 

2. Outline Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (6 marks)

• Maslow proposed that human motivation is organised in a hierarchy

• Basic physiological needs (e.g. food, sleep) must be met first

• Then safety needs (e.g. security, stability)

• Followed by love/belonging needs (e.g. relationships, friendship)

• Then esteem needs (e.g. status, achievement) • The final level is self-actualisation (achieving full personal potential)

• The needs become more psychological and harder to achieve the higher up the hierarchy

• Each prior need must be met for the individual to go onto the next need

 

3. Outline the psychosexual stages in the psychodynamic approach. (6 marks)

• Freud proposed children go through five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital

• Each stage focuses on a different erogenous zone

• The oral stage (0-1) involves pleasure from the mouth (e.g. sucking) – conflict occurs due to weaning – oral fixation may include pen chewing, nail biting, sarcasm

• The anal stage (0-3) focuses on pleasure from withholding/expelling faeces - conflict occurs due to potty – anal fixation may include being anally retentive i.e. a perfectionist or anally expulsive e.g. messy

• The phallic stage (3-5) involves the Oedipus/Electra complex and identification - conflict occurs due to the complexes – phallic fixation may include identity problems and same sex relationships

• The latency stage involves the repressing of the previous conflicts

• The genital stage (adolescence) involves sexual gratification now being conscious - conflict occurs due to the expectations of society – genital fixation may include problems with intimacy and relationships

• If conflicts are unresolved at any stage, fixation can occur and affect adult personality

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8 markers

 

1. Discuss the emergence of psychology as a science. (8 marks)

AO1 (3 marks)

• Wundt opened the first psychology lab and used systematic introspection to study human consciousness. • Behaviourists then introduced controlled laboratory experiments and objective measurement.

• Later approaches (cognitive + biological) used scientific methods, brain scans and experimental techniques.

AO3 (5 marks)

• Scientific methods increased objectivity and replicability increasing credibility of psychology as a science

• Brain scanning (e.g. fMRI) has improved understanding of brain-behaviour links.

• Controlled experiments allow cause and effect to be tested.

• Humans are not always predictable like in laboratory conditions – behaviour may lack ecological validity.

 

2. Discuss the role of theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach. (8 marks)

AO1 (3 marks) 

• Theoretical models (e.g. MSM/WMM) offer a structured representation of mental processes.

• Computer models compare the mind to a computer (input → process → output).

• They help break complex cognitive functions into measurable components.

AO3 (5 marks)

• Models can be scientifically tested and refined through experiments.

• They allow clear operationalisation of mental processes.

• Widely successful in artificial intelligence and machine-learning applications.

• Computer analogy oversimplifies human thinking (ignores emotions and context) e.g. machine reductionism.

• Theoretical models are hypothetical and may not reflect how the brain actually functions.

 

3. Discuss the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the cognitive approach. (8 marks)

AO1 (3 marks)

• Cognitive neuroscience combines cognitive psychology with neuroscience.

• It studies neural mechanisms underlying mental processes.

• Techniques such as fMRI and EEG allow brain activity to be measured directly.

AO3 (5 marks)

• Objective scientific methods provide reliable biological evidence.

• Useful for investigating mental disorders (e.g. OCD linked to basal ganglia).

• Supports development of brain-based treatments and therapies.

• Brain activity patterns do not always equal causation (correlation cannot prove mechanism).

• Scanning lacks ecological validity as tasks in scanners are artificial.

 

4. Discuss how the humanistic approach has influenced counselling psychology. (8 marks)

AO1 (3 marks)

• Humanistic ideas led to client-centred therapy.

• Therapists focus on empathy and unconditional positive regard.

• Aim is to increase patient’s self-worth and reduce incongruence.

AO3 (5 marks)

• Person-centred techniques are widely used in modern counselling.

• Empowering the client promotes personal growth and autonomy. More holistic than other types of therapy e.g. CBT

• Effective in the real world for depression and low self-esteem (supports long-term change).

• Lacks objective evidence compared to CBT.

• May not suit mental disorders where thought to be mostly biological and medication is needed.

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