4 markers

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1. Outline reciprocity as a caregiver-infant interaction in humans. (4 marks)

• Reciprocity is where caregiver and infant respond to each other’s signals.

• It takes the form of turn-taking like a conversation.

• Behaviour of one elicits a response in the other.

• Brazelton suggested this is like a dance.

• Reciprocity becomes more intense after 3 months.

 

2. Outline interactional synchrony as a caregiver-infant interaction in humans. (4 marks)

• IS is where caregiver and infant reflect actions/emotions simultaneously.

• There is a high degree of co-ordination between their behaviour e.g. mirroring

• Meltzoff & Moore (1977) found infants as young as 2 weeks imitated adult facial expressions.

• Suggests interactional synchrony is innate.

 

3. Outline a study investigating interactional synchrony as a caregiver-infant interaction in humans. (4 marks) 

• Meltzoff & Moore (1977) studied imitation in infants in a controlled observation.

• Adults displayed 3 specific facial expressions and one hand gesture

• Infants as young as 2 weeks showed distinctive imitation when film recordings analysed.

• Suggests interactional synchrony is present very early/ innate.

 

4. Outline how Schaffer identified the stages of attachment. (4 marks)

• Schaffer & Emerson studied 60 Glasgow babies / mothers.

• They used a longitudinal method over the first year visiting once a month and then again at 18 months

• They measured separation anxiety using self report from the mother and stranger anxiety from the infants response to the researcher.

• From the data they derived the four stages of attachment

• They also found that infants attach to those who are most sensitive to their needs.

 

5. Outline one stage of attachment identified by Schaffer. (4 marks)

• In the specific attachment stage the infant forms a primary attachment.

• Usually occurs around 7 months.

• Shows separation anxiety to this figure.

• Shows stranger anxiety to others.

• Credit other valid stages.

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6. Outline one study investigating the role of the father. (4 marks) •

• Grossman (2002) conducted a longitudinal study.

• Father’s play quality predicted adolescent attachment.

• Suggesting fathers play more of a play/stimulation role.

• Rather than emotional comfort.

• Credit other valid studies. 

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7. Outline how Lorenz studied attachment. (4 marks) •

• Lorenz randomly divided goose eggs in two groups.

• Half hatched naturally with mother goose.

• Half hatched with Lorenz present.

• He mixed them up under an upturned box and then lifted the box and observed who they followed.

• He also lengthened the time it from hatching to the first moving object they saw to measure the length of the critical period.

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8. Outline what Lorenz found about attachment. (4 marks)

• Geese imprinted on first moving object they saw.

• Critical period for imprinting was around 24 hours.

• Imprinting affected later mate choice (sexual imprinting).

• Attachment is innate and biological.

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9. Outline how Harlow studied attachment. (4 marks)

• Harlow studied rhesus monkeys in controlled observations.

• He provided cloth and wire surrogate mothers.

• Wire mother dispensed milk; cloth provided comfort.

• Measured time monkeys spent with each

• Fear condition: scared the monkeys and observed who they went to.

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10. Outline what Harlow found about attachment. (4 marks)

• Monkeys preferred cloth mother over wire mother (measured through time spent).

• Comfort was more important than food, supporting Bowlby’s theory of attachment.

• Critical period around 90 days.

• Early deprivation caused later social problems.

• Monkeys raised in isolation harmed their offspring.

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11. Outline the concept of the critical period. (4 marks)

• Bowlby suggested attachment has a critical window, with 0-2.5 years most vital.

• Later softened to sensitive period (first 5 years) due to case study evidence.

• If no attachment formed then, it is difficult to form attachments later.

• Supported by animal studies.

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12. Outline how attachments are formed according to learning theory. (4 marks)

• Based on an association between mother and food, known as cupboard love.

• Attachment is learned via classical conditioning (association)

• Mother (NS) becomes associated with food (UCS) i.e. cupboard love.

• Mother becomes conditioned stimulus producing pleasure (CR).

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13. Outline how attachments are maintained according to learning theory. (4 marks)

• Operant conditioning explains maintenance.

• Attachment maintained through reinforcement.

• Baby cries which leads to food / comfort (positive reinforcement).

• Caregiver is reinforced by stopping crying (negative reinforcement).

• Food is the primary driver and the mother secondary.

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14. Outline the concept of monotropy. (4 marks)

• Bowlby said infants form one primary attachment with a ‘mother figure’

• If the mother is not available it can be with a mother substitute.

• More important than other attachments; unique and special bond.

• Law of accumulated separation.

• This attachment has long-term consequences.

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15. Outline the concept of an internal working model. (4 marks) 

• It is a mental template / schema based on primary attachment.

• Guides expectations of future relationships – continuity hypothesis.

• Positive internal working model leads to healthy future relationships.

• Negative internal working model leads to unhealthy future relationships.

• Also influences future parenting.

• Formed during the critical period.

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16. Outline how Ainsworth investigated attachment types. (4 marks)

• Ainsworth developed Strange Situation – controlled observation.

• Structured observation with 7 episodes around 3 minutes each – 21 minutes in total.

• Measured separation/stranger anxiety, safe base / exploration and reunion behaviours.

• Classified infants into secure/avoidant/resistant.

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17. Outline what secure attachment looks like in infants. (4 marks)

• Shows moderate separation anxiety.

• Shows moderate stranger anxiety.

• Uses caregiver as secure base for exploration.

• Accepts comfort at reunion.

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18. Outline what insecure-resistant attachment looks like in infants. (4 marks)

• Shows high separation anxiety.

• Shows high stranger anxiety.

• Is reluctant to explore.

• Resists comfort upon reunion.

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19. Outline what insecure-avoidant attachment looks like in infants. (4 marks)

• Shows low separation anxiety.

• Shows low stranger anxiety.

• Will willingly explore.

• Does not seek comfort on reunion.

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20. Outline how van Ijzendoorn studied cultural variations in attachment. (4 marks)

• Comparing attachment types across different countries.

• Meta-analysis.

• Combined 32 Strange Situation studies.

• In 8 different countries.

• Total sample 1990 infants.

 

21. Outline what van Ijzendoorn found about cultural variations in attachment. (4 marks)

• Secure attachment most common.

• Israel/ Japan had higher resistant attachment.

• Germany had higher avoidant attachment.

• x1.5 variation within countries - greater than between.

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22. Outline the effects of maternal deprivation. (4 marks)

• Lower IQ – cognitive impairment.

• Emotional issues – difficulty forming relationships.

• Affectionless psychopathy – lack empathy.

• Delinquency – petty low level crime by young people.

 

23. Outline a study investigating maternal deprivation. (4 marks)

• Bowlby studied 44 thieves from his London clinic.

• Interviewed the boys and their mothers (self report).

• 14/44 were classified as affectionless psychopaths.

• 12/44 had experienced maternal deprivation.

• Supports link between deprivation and emotional damage.

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24. Outline the effects of institutionalisation. (4 marks)

• Disinhibited attachment if adopted after 6 months.

• Intellectual imp airment if adopted after 2 years (IQ <77). 

• If adopted before 6 months caught up intellectually with peers (IQ - 102). 

• Physical underdevelopment possible.

 

25. Outline the procedure of a study investigating the effects of institutionalisation. (4 marks) •

• Rutter’s ERA study examined 165 Romanian orphans in a longitudinal study. 

• Adopted to families in the UK. 

• Compared to control group of 50 children adopted within the UK. 

• Assessed at different ages - tested at 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25 yrs.

 

26. Outline the findings of a study investigating the effects of institutionalisation. (4 marks)

Rutter

• Disinhibited attachment if adopted after 6 months. • Intellectual impairment if adopted after 2 years (IQ <77).

• If adopted before 6 months caught up intellectually with peers (IQ - 102).

• Physical underdevelopment possible. Zeanah.

• 19% securely attached compared to 74% controls. 

• Institutionalisation leads to insecure attachment styles. 

• 44% disinhibited attachment compared to 20% controls.

• Institutionalisation leads to disinhibited attachment.

 

27. Outline the effects of early attachment on childhood relationships. (4 marks)

• Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998)

• Secure children have better peer relationships. 

• Avoidant may become victims of bullying. 

• Resistant may become bullies. 

• Internal working model shapes childhood relationships.

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28. Outline a study that investigates the effects of early attachment on childhood relationships. (4 marks) 

• Myron-Wilson & Smith investigated bullying by assessing attachment type and bullying involvement.

• Used a questionnaire in 196 children aged 7-11 in London. 

• Secure children unlikely to be involved. 

• Avoidant more likely victims. 

• Resistant more likely bullies.

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29. Outline the effects of early attachment on adult relationships. (4 marks) •

• Secure leads to stable trusting romantic relationships.

• Avoidant leads to fear of intimacy.

• Resistant leads to jealousy and clinginess.

• Based on internal working model and continuity hypothesis.

 

30. Outline a study that investigates the effects of early attachment on adult relationships. (4 marks) •

• Hazan & Shaver ‘love quiz’ - newspaper questionnaire.

• 620 volunteer responses, USA

• Questionnaire assessed the individuals’ most important romantic relationship, general experiences towards love and experiences with their first attachment figure.

• Secure had positive romantic experiences.

• Insecure-avoidants had intimacy problems.

• Insecure-resistants had shorter relationships, emotional extremes of passion and jealousy

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